Photoresponsive redox detection and discrimination

ABSTRACT

Devices and methods are provided for making a plurality of determinations of the local (site-specific) redox state of a liquid system, by employing a photoresponsive element, which can be independently irradiated at different sites to provide independently detectable signals.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The detection of the presence of a material and/or its amount in aparticular environment becomes increasingly important in a society whichseeks to monitor and manipulate its environment. Despite the longhistory of developing devices for measurement of various materials inliquid media, there still remain ample opportunities for improvements insensitivity, efficiency, economy, and ease of use. Among the manifolddetection methods, one device which has found recent application is thefield effect transistor (FET) and various modifications of the device.Various studies have been directed to the use of FETs for measurement oforganic molecules. See for example, Stenberg et al., J. Coll. Interfaceand Sci. (1979) 72:255-264; Bergveld and DeRooij, Med. Biol. Eng. Compt.(1979) 17:647-654; Bergveld et al., IEEE Trans. BMI-23 (1976) pages136-144; and Lauks and Zemel, IEEE Trans. on Electron Devices, Vol.ED-26, No. 12 (December 1979), pages 10959-10964. These references aremerely illustrative of references directed to semiconductor devices,particularly field effect transistors, for measurement of materials insolution. The FET devices have not found commercial acceptance and inmany situations, lack flexibility. For use as chemical detectors, FETdevices particularly suffer from the difficulty of obtaining exposedgate regions and working with them in an experimental environment.

As compared to other devices, semiconductive or other devices whichrespond to an electrical signal provide for a number of advantages. Theelectrically responsive device can respond to relatively small signals.Furthermore, by various techniques, the signal can be modulated and thebackground noise diminished or substantially eliminated. Electricaldevices can frequently be miniaturized, so that relatively smallequipment can be developed for measurement of changes in various fluids.

2. Description of the Prior Art

References of interest include Gronet and Lewis, Nature (1982)300:733-735; Bard and Faulkner, 1980. ElectrochemicalMethods--Fundamentals and Applications, John Wiley and Sons, New York;Fahrenbruch and Bube, 1983. Fundamentals of Solar Cells--PhotovoltaicEnergy Conversion, Academic Press, New York; Fonash, 1981; Solar CellDevice Physics, Academic Press, New York; and Photoeffects atSemiconductor-Electrolyte Surfaces, ed. Nozik, American ChemicalSociety, Washington, D.C., 1981. See also U.S. Pat. No. 4,293,310 andPCT Application No. WO83/02669.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Photoresponsive sensing elements, circuits and methods are providedinvolving measuring electrical signals resulting from irradiation at aplurality of sites, where the signals vary in relation to the redoxenvironment at each site. A plurality of sites on a photoresponsivesurface are irradiated with light of a predetermined wavelength range toproduce individually analyzable signals, where each of the signals isrelated to the redox state of the medium volume associated with theirradiated site. The photoresponsive surface is polarized in relation toone or more counterelectrodes which is in an electrically transductiverelationship through a medium with said photoresponsive surface.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a first exemplary circuit for use in the method of theinvention;

FIG. 2 is a second exemplary circuit which provides for the automaticmaintenance of the photosignal from a photoresponsive surface at apredetermined value;

FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic cross-sectional view of a photoresponsivedevice for sampling multiple compartments;

FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic view partially broken away of a manifold foruse with the photoresponsive device;

FIG. 5 is a diagrammatic view of a photoresponsive device and anassociated sample handling system;

FIG. 6 is a graph of observed voltage with varying redox compositions;

FIG. 7 is a third exemplary circuit which allows for alternation betweenmaintaining a constant potential or constant amplitude; and

FIG. 8 is a diagrammatic cross-sectional view of an embodiment having aplurality of wells and a common gel electrolyte communicating withindividual wells.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

In accordance with the subject invention, methods and devices areprovided which allow for the simultaneous or substantially simultaneousdetermination of individual portions of a medium. The device employs aphotosensitive sensing element serving as an electrode electricallycoupled through a signal analyzing circuit and an electricallycommunicating medium to at least one counterelectrode. Sites on thephotosensitive surface are individually irradiated by light of apredetermined wavelength range, whereby the signals at such individualsites may be individually analyzed. The detectable signal at each ofsaid sites will be related to the level of irradiation at each site andthe state of the conduction band within the photosensitive sensingelement as a result of the fluid medium adjacent the site on thephotoresponsive surface.

The photoresponsive electrode is polarized in relation to at least onecounterelectrode. The two electrodes are in electrically communicatingrelationship, where the medium providing the communicating relationshipmay be the same as or different from the medium to be analyzed. Acircuit is employed which provides for polarizing the photoresponsiveelectrode with either a reverse or forward bias, where current is eitherinhibited or allowed to flow through an electrically communicatingnon-metallic medium, usually a polar fluid medium, e.g., an aqueousmedium. In some instances there will be a dark current, while in otherinstances a significant current will occur only during irradiation. Inorder to determine the state of an individual portion of a medium ofinterest, one irradiates a site in propinquity to said individualportion and measures the resulting signal as compared to a standard.

The photoresponsive electrode or sensing element or electrode can be asemiconductive material or photoconductive material. Semiconductivematerials include such materials as silicon, gallium arsenide, galliumselenide, aluminum gallium arsenide, or the like. The semiconductivematerial will be either of the p- or n-type and, as appropriate, mayemploy such dopants as boron, aluminum, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony,or the like. The degree of doping may be varied widely, there being awide variety of commercially-available doped wafers which can be used.The concentration of the dopant will normally vary empirically toprovide the desired photoresponse, frequently being a matter ofconvenience, and will generally range from about 10¹⁰ to 10²⁰ atoms/cc;usually for silicon the rating will be about 5-20 ohm-cm.Photoconductive materials include chlorogallium phthalocyanine. Riekeand Armstrong, J. Am. Chem. Soc. (1984) 106:47-50.

Various electrical circuits may be used to measure changes inphotoresponsiveness of the sensing electrode which result from changesin the state of an individual portion of the medium. These electricalcircuits may primarily measure changes in phototransductance whichinclude photopotential, photoconductance, photocapacitance orphotoinductance, or combinations thereof. The circuits will be chosen soas to provide maximal sensitivity for detecting small changes in thestate of the medium. These measurements will be generally referred to asthe photoresponse.

The observed signal from the circuit can be a result of a change indirect current, alternating current or the effect of a direct current onan alternating current.

The circuits employed allow for measuring different variables, such asAC amplitude, bias potential, DC amplitude, the AC component of the LEDamplitude, the DC component of the LED amplitude, or the like. Thevariables can be interrelated automatically by varying the potential orlight intensity in relationship to the photoresponse. For example, onecan vary the bias potential to maintain a constant AC or DCphotoresponse and measure the change in bias potential; or, one can fixthe bias potential and measure the DC current resulting from steadyillumination or AC current resulting from amplitude modulatedillumination; or, one can fix the amplitude of the AC or DCphotoresponse by varying the intensity of the AC or DC illumination andmeasuring the light intensity.

Where wafers are used, they may come in a variety of sizes and shapes,varying from chip size which may have its largest dimension of about 0.1mm or wafer size, which may be 100 mm, more usually not more than about75 mm in its largest dimension. The device will usually have at leastone smooth surface or smooth portion of a surface, desirably flat, whichwill serve as the irradiation site. The wafer may be round, rectangular,elongate or the like. The thickness of the wafer will generally be notmore than about 1mm, usually less than about 2 mm, and generally notless than about 0.05μ, usually not less than 0.1 mm.

The irradiation surface will normally have an associated matrix. Thematrix may include a coating of at least about 25 Å, more usually atleast about 50 Å, which may be substantially larger, depending upon itsfunction, usually not exceeding 1000 Å, more usually not exceeding 500Å. For the most part, the matrix will include at least a small amount ofa protective oxide or nitride coating or other protective coating, e.g.,silicon oxide or nitride.

Alternatively or in combination, the surface may be reacted with a widevariety of organic silanes, particularly halides or esters, which canprovide for an organic coating of the surface. The organosilanes willhave organogroups of from 1 to 30, more usually of from about 1 to 25carbon atoms, which may be aliphatic, alicyclic, aromatic orheterocyclic, or combinations thereof, usually hydrocarbon, which may bealiphatically saturated or unsaturated or may be a substitutedhydrocarbon having a polar terminus, which may be polar due to: (1) acharge, e.g., carboxylate, phosphate or ammonium; (2) a zwitterion,e.g., betaine; or (3) a dipole, e.g., 3,4-dinitrophenyl, carboxylateester, phosphate triester, etc.

Where hydrocarbon groups are employed, particularly aliphatic groups offrom about 6 to 24 carbon atoms, either saturated or unsaturated, asecond layer may be employed to provide for a bilayer membrane. Anylipids may be used for preparing the second layer which provide a stablebilamellar membrane. Alternatively lipids forming stable lamellarmembranes may be employed for both layers, avoiding covalent bonding tothe surface. Illustrative groups include phospholipids, sphingomyelins,gangliosides, cholesteric compounds, acylglycerols, waxes, and the like.

Conveniently a polymerized lipid bilayer may be employed which may bepreprepared and positioned on the surface. See, for example, Wegner,Chapter V, R. A. Welch Foundation Conf. on Chemical Research XXVISynthetic Polymers, Nov. 15-17, 1982, Houston, Tex., which disclosure isincorporated herein by reference. Desirably, the degree ofpolymerization will be less than 100%, usually from about 20% to 90%, toallow for a substantial degree of fluidity and lateral diffusion. Ifdesired, a first layer may also be employed under the polymerized layer.

Various other materials may be used in conjunction with the surface,which materials may be bound either covalently or non-covalently, orheld mechanically in place adjacent to the surface. The materials may benaturally occurring, or synthetic or combinations thereof. Thesematerials include porous films, generally of from about 1 to 50 mil inthickness, normally being polar materials, such as nitrocellulose,partially hydrolyzed polyvinyl acetate, polyacrylates, proteins,polysaccharides, e.g., agarose, etc. Various gels may be used, such asagar, polyacrylamide, or the like. These layers may have independentintegrity or rely on the photoresponsive device for support. They willbe in contact, in whole or in part, with the photoresponsive element,either directly or through intermediate layers, e.g., liquid layers,such as aqueous layers.

Of particular interest are redox materials which may be bound covalentlyor non-covalently to the photoresponsive surface or a confrontingsurface. Various compounds which can act as election transfer agents maybe employed using convenient linking groups, such as alkylenesilylhalides or esters. See, for example, Faulkner, Chemical and EnqineeringNews, Feb. 27, 1984, pp. 28-45, where N,N'-disubstituted 4,4'-dipyridylcompounds are described. Other silylhalide substituted redox compoundsmay be employed, which will be described subsequently.

Various other materials may also be associated with the photoresponsiveelectrode, which materials will be described in more detailsubsequently. Among these may be a confronting spaced apart layer, e.g,sheet or slide. Other materials may be present to provide for specificinteractions, particularly complexation between specific bindingmaterials. These materials may be bound directly or indirectly to thephotoresponsive surface, or to the protective coating, or confrontinglayer.

Any films or coatings or layers should not interfere with thetransmission of light of the particular wavelength with which thephotoresponsive surface is irradiated. Furthermore, a matrix at thephotoresponsive surface may be required to allow for polar interactionsas a result of ions or the binding or complexing of polar, particularlycharged materials, e.g., proteins, lipids, neuraminic acids, or othercharged saccharide, or the like.

The matrix may be of any thickness, so long as it allows for sufficienttransmission of light to the semiconductor surface for the desiredintensity and for the particular modification of the state of the mediumat a site at the surface. The medium employed at the site of the surfacewill usually allow for diffusion of ions. Therefore, to the extent thatsolid films are employed, these will usually be porous and immersed in aliquid medium, so as to allow for the diffusion of ions and moleculesadjacent the sensing electrode surface to provide for electricalcommunication between the electrodes.

The device may have a single continuous photoresponsive surface rangingfrom a surface area of about 1 mm² to about 50 cm², more usually about25 cm², or in some instances may be a plurality of individualphotoresponsive surfaces physically isolated from each other, butelectrically connected to the same circuit. The individual units willusually range from about 0.1 mm² to 5 mm² or greater, the upper limitbeing primarily one of convenience, although in some situations anenhanced signal may be obtained by employing a large surface area. Theindividual units may be in contact with media which are completelyisolated or are partially isolated from each other by the presence ofpartitions which allow for electrical communication, for example,membranes, fritted walls or partitions extending only a partial distanceto the surface, conveniently 25% to 90% of the distance to the surface.Such partitions may also find use with a large photoresponsive surface,as will be described subsequently.

Access for media to different regions of the photoresponsive surface maybe controlled physically in a variety of ways, providing forcompartments, which may have any convenient periphery, circular, squareor the like, channels, which may be circular, serpentine or straight, orcombinations thereof. Extended areas such as channels allow forinspection of a moving solution at different times. Channels can beprovided by having grooves in the matrix associated with thephotoresponsive surface and compartments can be provided for by havingidentations in the matrix associated with the photoresponsive surface.The number of independent units to be measured may be 2 or more, usuallybeing 5 or more, and may be 50 or more, and could be as high as 2500.

Alternatively, a facing solid film, layer or plate may be employed,which may provide for localization of key reagents or for appropriatestructure, resulting in dividing the photoresponsive surface intocompartments and/or channels. The facing surface is normally rigid andmay be transparent, opaque, translucent, may be metal, ceramic, glass,or the like. Where translucent or opaque, in relation to the irradiationlight, where the facing plate is adjacent to the photoresponsivesurface, holes can be provided in the plate for transmission of thelight at a variety of sites. Or, optical fibers may be employed fordirecting light through the plate to particular sites. The plate may bean inert material, merely providing structure, or can be modified byproviding for binding of various materials to the surface. Thesematerials would be involved in the determination of the state of anincremental portion of a medium, so as to provide for individual siteswhich may be individually determined, allowing for the rapiddetermination of a plurality of results.

Irradiation of the photoresponsive surface may be on either side of thewafer. However, where the irradiation occurs on the side opposite to theside associated with the medium of interest, it will be necessary thatthe wafer be very thin, so that the conductive band which is influencedby the medium of interest can also be affected by the light irradiation.Normally, in this situation, the thickness of the photoresponsiveelement will be from about 0.05μ to 2μ.

The light source can be any convenient source, particularly of an energyat least about the conduction band gap of the photoresponsive element,so as to produce mobile charges, i.e., free electrons and positiveholes. The light source will generally vary in the range of visible toinfra-red; for silicon, this is about 1.1 eV. This would provide for awavelength range generally in the range of about 0.1μ to 1μ, moreusually from about 0.3μ to 1μ. Other semiconductors can be matched witha light source accordingly. By employing dyes as a thin layer on thephotoresponsive surface, lower energy light may be employed coupled witha rednx reaction. The light and dark periods for pulsed radiation may bethe same or different, generally ranging from 10⁻² to 10⁻⁶ seconds. Thetotal time of irradiation of a particular site is not critical and mayrange from 10⁻³ to 100 seconds.

Any source of light may be used which provides the means for providingcontinuous or intermittent light for short periods of time, particularlya source which can provide for cycling the light at a predeterminedfrequency, e.g., 100 Hz-100 kHz, usually 100 Hz-50 kHz, more usually1-20 kHz, during the period of irradiation. Of particular interest areLED arrays, which are available providing red light, or white light, forexample, from a tungsten lamp. Alternatively, a single source can beused, e.g., fluorescent light in the visible region; where shutters areused, nematic liquid crystals, gratings, optical fibers, choppers, orthe like, may also find application.

Usually, the different sites will be irradiated at different times toprovide a simple method for distinguishing between the signalsassociated with the individual sites. However, simultaneous irradiationof different sites may be employed, where a means is used to allow fordistinguishing the signals, such as a phase shift, alternatingfrequencies, or other combinations where the signals can be segregated.

As indicated above, the subject application can address one or moreindividual portions of one or more media to be analyzed, where theindividual portion or volume can be indicative of the gross propertiesof the medium or particular individual portions of the medium, whereproperties of individual portions may differ in their properties onefrom the other as well as from the properties of the gross medium. Onecan inspect individual portions by irradiating a site on thephotoresponsive surface associated with the particular individualportion. Irradiation at a particular site may be achieved by employing alight source which irradiates the specific site, due to movement of thelight source and the photoresponsive surface in relation to one anotheror by having a plurality of light sources, which irradiate differentportions of the photoresponsive surface in accordance with apredetermined schedule, or combinations thereof. In this way, one canaddress different portions of the medium to determine the state of theindividual portion as to a variety of properties and determinevariations in the state of the medium over a large volume. Furthermore,one can employ one or more channels and determine the state of theindividual portions along a channel, so that one can relate variationsin the states of the individual portions along the channel to a temporalchange occurring in the medium. By using continuous or intermittent flowtechniques, by mixing two media which provide for a detectable reactionprior to entering the irradiation path, one can provide a steady stateat each irradiation site along the channel. In this manner, one candetermine rates of reaction, by observing the steady state properties ofthe medium at different sites along a channel.

Thus, the subject invention allows for the substantially simultaneousmonitoring of temporal events. Therefore, one can choose to move eitherone or more light sources or the photoresponsive surface or have aplurality of light sources, which will irradiate a surface in accordancewith a predetermined schedule, or, with a plurality of isolatedphotoresponsive, surfaces have simultaneous irradiation or irradiationat differing times.

Because of the diversity of redox materials which can be detected, thepermissible variations in the conformations which can be employed, andthe flexibility in circuitry, a wide variety of different systems andsituations can be addressed by the subject invention. While for the mostpart, fluids providing for modulation of a photoresponsive electricalsignal will be monitored, the subject invention allows for monitoring ofsolid and semi-solids in appropriate situations.

The subject invention can be used for monitoring various streams, suchas effluents, natural bodies of water, industrial streams from chemicalprocessing plants, refineries, power generation, and the like, air, orother fluid, where the fluid has a component which will affect aphotoresponsive electrical signal or such component can be employed inconjunction with other materials to provide for such a response.

A photoresponsive electrode can be influenced by the redox potential ofthe medium adjacent the wafer surface. Various redox systems can beemployed which can be in vitro or in vivo systems involving cells, e.g.,microorganisms, mammalian cells, etc., enzyme reactions, particularlyoxidoreductases, e.g., glucose oxidase, peroxidase, uricase, NAD or NADPdependent dehydrogenases, naturally occurring electron transfer agents,e.g., ferridoxin, ferritin, cytochrome C, and cytochrome b₂, organicelectron donors and acceptor agents, e.g., methylene blue, nitrotetrazolium, Meldola blue, phenazine methosulfate, metallocenes, e.g.,ferrocenium, naphthoquinone, N,N'-dimethyl 4,4'dipyridyl, etc., andinorganic redox agents, e.g., ferri- and ferrocyanide, chloronium ion,cuprous and cupric ammonium halide, etc.

In another embodiment, one could monitor the change in biological oxygendemand or chemical oxygen demand of an effluent stream or river byhaving a plurality of channels, which can divide up the stream intonumerous individual channels, where different chemicals could beintroduced into each individual channel, where the chemical or theproduct of the reaction provides for modulation of the photoresponsiveelectrical signal. Where there is a change in the redox potential, therate of change can be determined by determining the change in electricalsignal at different sites along the channel and relating the rate to thechemical or biological oxygen demand.

One can use the subject device for measuring rates of reactions, such asenzymatic reactions, where the enzymatic reaction results in a change inredox potential of the medium. This can be done in a dynamic or staticway in that by employing a moving stream, one can make the ratedetermination substantially instantaneously. Alternatively, by having arelatively static solution at a particular site, which is irradiatedintermittently, and readings taken at different times, one can alsodetermine the rate. The device may be used to determine theenzyme-catalyzed rate of reaction, where the enzyme catalyzes reductionof excess substrate using electrons generated at the wafer surface. Insuch cases, rate of reduction (and hence concentration of enzyme)determines the DC current flow at the surface of the wafer (and hencethe change in the measured photoresponse). In such cases (e.g., as forhorseradish perioxidase) enzyme concentration may be measured over aperiod as short as 1 to 5 seconds.

The subject invention can also be used with semi-solid or solid media,employing appropriate adaptations. For example, chromatographic layers,gels or the like, can be used where a redox signal is associated with acomponent of interest, where a mixture has been separated intocomponents by thin layer chromatography, electrophoresis, densitygradients, etc.

Of particular interest will be the use of the subject invention indetecting the presence of a specific component of a medium, where thecomponent may be a chemical, either synthetic or naturally occurring,such as drugs, hormones, proteins, steroids, receptors, nucleic acids,or the like; or aggregations of chemicals, such as nucleosomes, viruses,cells, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic, or the like. Thesedeterminations will frequently be made in physiological fluids, such asblood, plasma, saliva, cerebrospinal fluid, lymph, urine, or the like.

In some cases, such determinations will involve a combination of aligand and receptor, where the ligand and receptor have a specificaffinity, one for the other, so that they provide a pair of specificbinding members. Receptors for the most part will be antibodies,enzymes, or naturally occurring receptors, and can for the purposes ofthis invention include nucleic acids, while ligands may be any compoundfor which a receptor is available or can be made.

One could analyze for DNA or RNA sequences, e.g., alleles, mutants,recombinants, etc., by having labeled oligonucleotide sequences whichprovide for a redox reaction. For example, one could bind probes to aglass surface, with different oligonucleotide sequences at differentsites. The DNA or RNA sample would be prepared by denaturing anydouble-stranded polynucleotide, e.g., ds DNA, and mechanically, e.g., byshearing, or enzymatically, e.g., one or more endonucleases, providingan average-sized fragment, ranging from 500 to 10,000 nt.

The sample would then be mixed with labeled sequences which homoduplexwith the bound oligonucleotide sequences, so that the labeled sequencescompete with the sample sequences for the bound sequences underhybridization conditions of a predetermined stringency. After sufficienttime for the homologous sequences to become bound to the glass surfacethrough the intermediacy of hybridization to the bound sequence, theslide is removed, washed and placed in juxtaposition to thephotoresponsive surface, where a solution between the two surfacesprovides for a redox reaction with the label.

The systems involving specific binding pairs may be varied widely andmay involve a "homogeneous" system, where there is no binding to a solidsurface or a "heterogeneous" system, where there may be binding, whichbinding is renewable or non-renewable. By "renewable" is intended thatone can remove an active component of the assay system from the surfaceand replace it with a different component.

For the most part, an aqueous buffered medium will be employed, whichmay be lightly or heavily buffered depending on the nature of thematerial generating the signal. Various buffers may be employed, such ascarbonate, phosphate, borate, tris, acetate, barbital, Hepes, or thelike, at concentrations in the range of about 0.01 to 0.5M. Organicpolar solvents, e.g., oxygenated neutral solvents, may be present inamounts ranging from about 0 to 40 volume percent, such as methanol,ethanol, α-propanol, acetone, diethylether, etc.

In the specific binding pair assays, there will be a label conjugated toa substance, where the modulation of the photoresponsive signal will berelated to the amount of analyte in the sample being assayed. Thesubstance may be the analyte, analyte analog, the complementary bindingmember or a substance binding to any of these substances. Suchsubstances include antibodies to the immunoglobulin of a species, e.g.,sheep antibody to murine immunoglobulin. Also included are pairs,particularly hapten-receptor pairs, where the substance is modified witha hapten, e.g., biotin, and a reciprocal binding member labeled, e.g.,avidin. Thus, the label may be bound directly or indirectly, covalentlyor non-covalently, to a member of the specific binding pair whichincludes the analyte.

A system is employed which may have one or more components whichprovides a redox material in relation to a photoresponsive site whichmodulates, directly or indirectly, the photoresponsive electricalsignal. A substantial diversity of modulating materials may be employedin the specific binding assays, which materials may be the result of acatalyzed reaction, e.g., an enzyme catalyzed reaction.

For the homogeneous system, it will only be necessary that bindingresult in modulation of an assay system which results in the redoxmodulation of the photoresponsive electrical signal. The binding canoccur adjacent to the photoresponsive surface or distant from thephotoresponsive surface, where the photoresponsive surface can be usedlater to determine the level of the detectable compound in the assaymedium. For example, one could carry out a plurality of assays inseparate containers, e.g., microtiter plate wells, where the redoxpotential of the medium is changed in each of the wells in accordancewith the amount of an analyte. One could then simultaneously or seriallytransfer aliquots of each of the sample media to individual compartmentshaving the photoresponsive surface as the bottom of each of thecompartments. The individual samples would then be screened byilluminating each compartment in turn and determining the signalassociated with the irradiated sample medium. Alternatively, themonitoring of the assay reactions could be carried out with thephotoresponsive surface at the bottom of a plurality of compartments asdepicted in FIG. 8. Or, the assay can be carried out adjacent thephotoresponsive surface, by having a number of partial partitionsextending only a portion of the distance through the assay medium andintroducing the sample adjacent the photoresponsive surface. Since therate of formation of the detectable product will vary with the amount ofanalyte in the compartment, by comparison of differences betweencompartments having known amounts of analyte and compartments containingthe sample, one can relate the result to the standards.

Homogeneous assays include such assays as described in U.S. Pat. Nos.(label) 3,817,837 (enzyme); 3,935,074 (any ligand); 4,160,645(non-enzymatic catalyst); 4,193,983 (liposome); 4,208,479 (enzymemodifier); 4,275,149 (particles); and 4,341,865 (suicide inhibitors),which appropriate parts are incorporated herein by reference. Thesepatents involve enzymes, redox reagents, and combinations thereof.

For example, there is a commercial assay sold under the trademark EMIT.The assay employs the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, whichproduces NADH from NAD. By providing for an oxidation at thephotoresponsive surface, which converts the NADH to NAD, either directlyor through the intermediacy of other redox compounds, the rate offormation of NADH by the enzyme may be determined.

The homogeneous enzyme assay employs antibodies to an analyte, where theanalyte or an analyte analog is also bound to the enzyme to provide anenzyme-analyte conjugate. When antibody to the analyte binds to theenzyme-analyte conjugate, the enzymatic activity is substantiallyreduced. Thus, the rate of formation of NADH can be determined andrelated to the amount of analyte present in the volume adjacent thephotoresponsive site.

In carrying out the assay, one could have the photoresponsive site witha plurality of partitions defining a plurality of compartments, wherethe assay medium extends beyond the partitions. The assay medium wouldinclude the enzyme conjugate and buffers, stabilizers, or otheradditives, which are not directly involved in the system providing forthe detectable signal. One would prepare a sample solution containingthe antibody, the sample, and appropriate substrates, the mixtureincubated, and then injected into the appropriate compartment. The rateof production of a redox reagent, could then be followed as indicativeof the amount of analyte present in the sample.

Besides having an enzyme conjugated to the analyte or reciprocal bindingpair member, one can also conjugate substrates, co-factors, suicideinhibitors, or the like. Various of these techniques are disclosed inU.S. Patents described above. Therefore, one could prepare a conjugatecomprising a suicide inhibitor and an analyte. One could bind enzyme,either covalently or non-covalently, to a surface, either thephotoresponsive surface or a surface adjacent to the photoresponsivesurface. A sample solution would be prepared of antibody to the analyte,the sample, the suicide inhibitor conjugate, substrates, and anyadditional reagents necessary for producing a detectable product. Onecould then add the sample solution to the enzyme bound to the surfaceand determine the enzyme activity.

The heterogeneous system allows for separation between complexes betweenspecific binding pairs and uncomplexed specific binding pair members.This is achieved by having one of the members of the specific bindingpair bound to a solid surface. One could prepare a clear slide havingspecific antibodies at different sites on the slide, so that one couldassay a sample for a plurality of analytes. One would then addantibodies for each of the analytes to the solution, so as to employ asandwich immunoassay. Conveniently, the antibodies would be monoclonalantibodies to minimize cross-reactivity. One would then add an enzymeconjugate to an antibody which is specific for immunoglobulins from aparticular species. For example, if the monoclonal antibodies aremurine, one could conjugate rabbit antibodies specific for murineimmunoglobulin with a suitable enzyme which provides for a redoxreaction, e.g., peroxidase. Thus, only where the monoclonal murineantibody had bound, would there also be enzyme conjugate. One would thenplace the clear slide adjacent the photoresponsive surface in registry,so as to define where each of the original antibodies were. A thin,liquid film at the surface would provide the appropriate reagents andsubstrates for reaction with the enzyme to produce the detectable event.One would then irradiate the surface sequentially through the clearslide to determine whether any enzyme had become bound at a particularsite. In this manner, a sample could be assayed for a large number ofdifferent analytes, substantially simultaneously to provide for acomplete battery of determinations on a single sample, where extremelysmall amounts of the sample would be required.

Heterogeneous techniques are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,654,090(enzyme); 3,791,932 (enzyme); and 4,134,792 (enzyme substrate), whichpatents are in appropriate part incorporated herein by reference.

If one wished to repeatedly use the same surface, one could apply amember of a specific binding pair to the surface, where thecomplementary member is conjugated to a member of a specific bindingpair related to the analyte. For example, one could coat the surfacewith the same or different sugars, haptens, receptors, antibodies, ormembers of naturally occurring ligand-receptor pairs. One would thenconjugate the member of the specific binding pair related to the analyteto the binding member complementary to the material bound to thesurface. To illustrate, one could coat the surface with a saccharide andconjugate the analyte related specific binding pair member, e.g.,antigen, to a lectin. Thus, one could prepare conjugates of antibodiesto a protein analyte and lectins. By adding a solution of theantibody-lectin conjugate to the saccharide-coated surface, theantibodies would become bound to the surface. One could then carry outthe assay as described above and after completing the assay, remove thecomplexed material from the surface by adding a concentrated solution ofthe saccharide. One can use other pairs by analogy, where in place of alectin, an antibody or natural receptor could be employed. Thus, asingle surface can be used which could be repetitively replenished, sothat the same or different types of assays may be employed after eachdetermination. By binding different compounds to the surface atdifferent sites, one can direct specific binding pair members to aspecific site with the appropriate conjugate.

Various techniques may be used with enzymes for amplification andenhanced sensitivity. One may employ enzymes which require co-enzymes orsubstrates which can be produced by another enzyme, the interactionbetween the enzymes referred to as "channeling." For example, one couldbind a first enzyme to the slide and have the second enzyme conjugatedto the receptor. Thus, the first enzyme could provide for a highlocalized concentration of the substrate or co-enzyme for the secondenzyme. Illustrative enzyme pairs include glucose oxidase andhorseradish peroxidase, which can act to oxidize an electron transfercompound, a kinase and G6PDH, which with glucose and NAD can produceNADH, which can then be coupled with an electron transfer agent, etc.The rate of formation or instantaneous concentration of the electrontransfer agent could be related to the presence of an analyte.

Catalysts other than enzyme catalysts may be used, particularly redoxcatalysts. These catalysts may include such compounds as phenazinemethosulfate, methylene blue, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, Meldolablue, flavin mononucleotide, ferri- and ferrocyanide, and the like.These compounds may be used in conjunction with enzymes or othercatalytic compounds to provide for a redox potential or current flow atthe photoresponsive surface. For example, instead of conjugatingreceptors with enzymes, one could conjugate receptors with phenazinemethosulfate, Meldola blue, methylene blue, etc. By then employing thecouple of NADH and an electron transfer agent, a modified signal wouldbe produced at the photoresponsive sensing electrode.

Redox reagents can be coupled with naturally occurring enzyme transportsystems involving cells, membrane fragments, or individual members maybe joined in vitro or the individual members may be independentlydispersed in the medium. Thus, amplification can be achieved.Alternatively, the presence of intact cells or cell fragments can bedetected by their influence on a redox couple. For example, methyleneblue may be added to a medium suspected of containing microorganisms,e.g., bacteria, which are chemically reductive. Prior reduction of themethylene blue can be rapidly detected as indicating the presence ofreductive microorganisms.

In many situations it will be of interest to determine the presence of anatural receptor in a physiological fluid, particularly blood or plasma.Usually, the receptor will be an antibody, resulting from an autoimmunedisease, foreign substance, or an infection. The antibody may bedetected in a competition assay, where the endogenous antibody competeswith labeled antibody for the complementary antigen or the antibody mayserve as a bridge to bind labeled antigen to antigen bound to a surfaceor particle. Otherwise, for the most part, the antibody assay wouldfollow the techniques employed for detecting antigens.

In some situations it may be desirable to have lipid mono- or bilayerscovalently or non-covalently bound to the photoresponsive surface orother surface which can be brought in proximity to the photoresponsivesurface. A single lipid layer may be formed by first employing aliphaticsilyl halides or esters, where the silyl compound may have from one tothree aliphatic chains, generally of from about 12 to 24 carbon atoms,more usually of from about 12 to 20 carbon atoms. In addition, othermaterials may be present, either bonded to a silyl group or bonded tothe aliphatic chain, including aryl groups, functionalities, e.g.,carboxyl groups, halo groups, amino groups, or the like. One can thenprovide for the second layer by dipping the surface through a lipidmonolayer.

A lipid bilayer may also be formed without covalent bonding to ahydrophilic surface of a wafer by first passing a silicon wafer in aperpendicular orientation (normal to a lipid monolayer on an aqueoussurface in a Langmuir trough, for example) down through a lipidmonolayer at the air-water interface into the water layer and thenraising the wafer back through the interface parallel to the monolayer.The bilayer is then formed by returning the wafer through the interfaceface down and parallel to the interface. A thin aqueous film can bemaintained between the wafer surface and bilayer.

The bilayers allow for lateral diffusion within the layer. One canprovide for various groups bound to lipids which will specifically bindto an analyte, e.g., antibodies. One could provide for the presence ofdifferent enzymes bound to different antibodies, each antibody beingspecific for different antigens on a cell surface, where the enzymes arerelated by the product of one being the substrate of the other. Theenzymes would thus provide for channeling. The presence of the cell willbring together the related enzymes resulting in an enhanced rate ofproduction or destruction of an electron transfer agent capable ofmodulating a signal from the sensing electrode.

The use of bilayers can also be coupled with ionophores as labels, wherethe ionophores allow for transport of ions through the bilayer to thephotoresponsive surface. Thus, ionophores may be coupled to specificbinding partners, e.g., ligands or receptors which would specificallybind to their complementary partner bound to the bilayer. The presenceof the free ionophore would modulate the photoresponse due to theenhanced concentration of ions in close proximity to the surface.Illustrative ionophores include mellitin, nonactin, valinomycin,alamethicin, crown ethers, and the like.

One of the advantages of the subject invention is that it may usechemistries developed for use with spectrophotometric or fluorometricdetection systems. For example, biotin modified nucleic acids aredescribed for use as probes. By coupling an appropriate enzyme toavidin, one could probe a DNA or RNA sample fixed to a surface with thebiotin modified probe under stringent hybridization conditions. Afterremoval of non-specifically bound probe, one would add the avidin enzymeconjugate and additional members of the redox system.

For example, the enzyme 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase may be employed as thelabel, and fructose-1,6-diphosphate and ferricyanide provided. Dependingon the nature of the photoresponsive surface, one could detect thechange in the Fe⁺³ /Fe⁺² ratio.

Alternatively, a coenzyme could be used as a label such as FMN, FAD orNAD which could be coupled with an enzyme and a second redox couple,where the rate of transformation of the second redox couple would berelated to the amount of coenzyme present.

Alternatively, a sample containing a plurality of microorganisms may bespread on an appropriate nutrient agar gel and cloned. Employing theGrunstein-Hogness technique, cells are transferred to a nitrocelluloseporous film in appropriate registry with their position on the gel,lysed and the DNA fixed to the film by heating. Probes having acomplementary sequence to a unique sequence of the organism of interestare provided as partial single strands with a double-stranded3'-terminus having a sequence specifically recognized by a protein,e.g., repressor, rho, N protein of lambda, or the like. The film iscontacted with the probe under hybridizing conditions, e.g., 50% aqueoussaline dimethyl formamide and the hybridization solution then removed.After washing the film, a solution is added containing a specificbinding receptor labeled with an enzyme which catalyzes a reaction whichmodifies the redox potential of the medium. After sufficient time forthe labeled protein to bind, the film is washed free of non-specificallybound protein and placed in close-facing juxtaposition to thephotoresponsive surface. The enzyme substrate is then added and thesignal from the sensing electrode determined.

The microorganisms can also be used to measure the presence of a biostator biocide in a medium. By combining the medium with growingmicroorganisms and determining the rate of growth of the microorganismsas compared to a standard differing only in the absence of the mediumthe presence of a biocide can be detected. By employing immortalizedmammalian cells, e.g., tumor cells, the presence of growth regulatorscan also be detected.

The following examples are illustrative of the manner in which thesubject methodology could be used. The device, either a single surfaceor a plurality of individual non-contiguous surface units, haspartitions to isolate individual areas or compartments. A film isemployed proximate to the surface having lectins specific for aparticular mono- or oligosaccharide. Antibodies are modified with theparticular saccharide and antibodies for the same or different ligandsare introduced into each compartment and the excess washed away. Asample is now introduced which overflows the compartment partitions andany complementary ligand becomes bound in the appropriate compartment.The sample is then washed away and an antibody mixture added which bindsto the single or multiple ligands bound to the antibodies in thecompartments. These antibodies are all from a single source, e.g., mice.The antibody solution is washed, a conjugate of an enzyme with rabbitantibody to mouse immunoglobulin is added and allowed to overflow thecompartment walls and bind to any mouse immunoglobulin in thecompartments. The non-specifically bound enzyme may then be washed awayand the enzyme activity in each compartment determined by adding asubstrate medium to each compartment which provides a product which canbe photoresponsively determined.

In another embodiment, individual photoconductive units are providedhaving antibodies covalently bonded to the surface of each unit througha silyl-substituted aliphatic carboxylic acid. The sample is thencontacted with the antibody, the sample washed away andenzyme-conjugated-antibody added. After sufficient time for binding,non-specifically bound enzyme is removed and a developer solution addedwhich produces NADH. Under suitable conditions NADH produced by theenzyme can be indirectly reoxidized by the photoresponsive electrode sothat the NAD may be recycled. The rate of formation of NADH is relatedto the photoresponse as a result of photooxidation.

Various circuits may be employed for determining the state of the mediumadjacent the surface. Besides the photoresponsive sensing electrode,there will be at least one counterelectrode, preferably twocounterelectrodes, and there may be a counterelectrode for eachcompartment or channel of the device. The same or different electrodemay serve as a controlling or reference electrode.

Various electrodes of a variety of materials may be used, so long as thematerials of the electrode do not adversely affect the photoresponsiveelectrode, are not adversely affected by, and preferably not sensitiveto the electrically communicating medium, and do not adversely affectthe electrically communicating medium. Illustrative electrodes includesuch materials as platinum, rhodium, palladium, silver-silver chloride,calomel, conducting glass electrode (SnO₂, InO₂ or ITO), etc. In someinstances it may be desirable to encase the electrode in an electricallycommunicating shield, e.g., gelatin.

In one embodiment, there are three electrodes, the sensing electrode, areference electrode and a controlling electrode. The potential betweenthe sensing electrode and the reference electrode can be varied byvarying the potential applied to the controlling electrode with respectto the sensing electrode. The light emitting diode or other light sourceis powered with an external electronic circuit so as to emit light whichmay vary in a regular pattern, e.g., square-wave, sine-wave, etc., inintensity with time, resulting in a time dependent response of thesensing electrode, which can be detected by measuring the currentthrough the controlling electrode required to maintain a constantpotential between the sensing electrode and the reference electrode.

In this configuration the peak to peak amplitude of the periodicallyvarying current through the controlling electrode varies as a functionof the chemical environment at the sensing electrode and as a functionof the potential applied between the sensing electrode and thecontrolling electrode. This configuration can be further simplified byshorting together the leads to the controlling and reference electrodesand removing the reference electrode from the circuit.

Desirably, the conducting polar medium with which the counterelectrodeis in electrical communication, e.g., immersed, will have a small amountof a redox couple or electron transfer agent, since in some instancesthe presence of the agent enhances the stability of the observed signal.Conveniently, the concentration will be in the range of about 1 mM to0.1M. Inorganic redox couples may be employed, such as Fe⁺³ /Fe⁺², Cu⁺²,Cu⁺¹, and Mn⁺³ /Mn⁺², or the like, where the metal ions may be complexedwith such ligands as cyano, ammonia, halo, etc. Usually, where a redoxor charge transfer agent is employed, the electrolyte solutions for thetwo electrodes--sensing electrode and counterelectrode--will beseparated by a salt bridge.

Turning now to FIG. 1, the semiconductor electrode 10 is positioned atthe surface of an aqueous medium 12. Lead 13 and potentiostat 11, e.g.,Model 363 Potentiostat/Galvenstat PAR (Princeton Applied Research),connect the semiconductor electrode 10, the reference electrode 14 andthe controlling electrode 15. The potentiostat 11 supplies a polarizingcurrent through the controlling electrode 15 and sensing electrode 10,which maintains a constant potential between the sensing electrode andthe reference electrode 14. The current required to maintain a fixedpotential between electrodes 10 and 14 is recorded as a voltage on meteroutput 16. An LED 32 is controlled by pulse circuit 34 to emit regularpulses of light at a predetermined frequency.

Another circuit which may be employed involves automatically varying thepotential between the controlling and sensing electrodes so as tomaintain a constant amplitude sinusoidal current through the controllingelectrode in response to sinusoidal irradiation of the sensingelectrode. Turning now to FIG. 2, the circuit has depicted a siliconwafer 42 which serves as the sensing electrode and a platinum electrode43 which serves as the controlling electrode. (Resistors and capacitorswill not be specifically mentioned, although depicted in the figure.) Anoperational amplifier 44 converts the current passing through thecontrolling and p-doped silicon semiconductor electrodes to a voltageand feeds the signal to a bandpass amplifier 46, which is comprised ofthree operational amplifiers 50, 52 and 54. The signal from the bandpassamplifier 46 is fed to the precision rectifier 56 which includes twooperational amplifiers 60 and 62 as well as two diodes 64 and 66. Avariable filter 70 is provided to smooth out the rectified signal anddetermine the response time of the circuit to changes in the chemicalenvironment at the silicon electrode. A negative signal is fed to thecontrolling amplifier 72 which includes potentiometer 74 and operationalamplifier 76. The controlling amplifier serves to control the potentialat the platinum electrode 43. The negative signal fed to the controllingamplifier 72 is related to the amplitude of the alternating currentthrough the Pt and Si electrodes in response to the sinusoidalirradiation of the Si electrode 42. For recording, the signal from thecontrolling amplifier 72 is fed to a unity gain amplifier 74 whichallows for control of the base value for the recorder. Thus, asdifferent sites are irradiated with regular sine-wave pulses on thesilicon wafer surface, the recorder will respond with the reading of thepotential between the Pt and Si electrodes necessary to maintain aconstant amplitude alternating current through the Pt and Si electrodes.This circuit is referred to as CAM for constant amplitude module.Circuitry not shown provides for sinusoidal light irradiation of thewafer in accordance with a predetermined schedule.

A third general circuit which may be employed involves automaticallyvarying the peak to peak amplitude of the LED output so as to maintain aconstant photoresponse of the sensing electrode at a constant potentialbetween the sensing and controlling electrodes. In this configuration,the detected signal which is sensitive to the environment at the sensingelectrode is the peak to peak current passing through the LED.

Another circuit which may be employed allows for operation in either oneof two modes. In one mode the potential between the controlling andsensing electrodes is maintained constant and the amplitude of thesinusoidal current through the sensing electrode in response tosinusoidal illumination of the sensing electrode is used as a monitor ofthe environment of the sensing electrode at the site of illumination.This is referred to as the CP mode. In a second mode the circuitautomatically varies the potential between the controlling and sensingelectrodes so as to maintain a constant amplitude sinusoidal currentthrough the sensing electrode. In this configuration the potentialbetween the controlling and sensing electrodes is used as a monitor ofthe sensing electrode at the site of illumination. This is referred toas the CAM mode.

The above-described circuit is depicted in FIG. 7, which is amodification of the circuit of FIG. 2. In this circuit, the signal fromthe bandpass amplifier 46 is fed to a phase sensitive detector 150comprised of operational amplifier 152 and transistor 158. Theoperational amplifiers may be Fairchild A741 amplifers and thetransistor is a N-channel silicon FET (Radio Shack 276-2035). A variablefilter 154 smooths out the rectified signal from the phase sensitivedetector 150 and serves to determine the response time of the circuit tochanges in the chemical environment at the silicon electrode. In the CAMmode a negative signal is fed to the controlling amplifier 156 whichincludes potentiometer 160 and operational amplifier 162. Potentiometer160 selects the amplitude of the AC signal that is to be maintainedconstant. The controlling amplifier 156 serves to control the potentialat the platinum electrode 43, analogous to the controlling amplifier 72of FIG. 2, with unity gain amplifier 164 having its counterpart inamplifier 74. The series diodes 166 limit the bias potential to amaximum of 1.5 V from the platinum to silicon electrodes. The doublepole double throw switch 170 serves to select the mode of operation ofthe circuit (e.g., CAM or CP).

In the CP mode a negative signal from the phase sensitive detector isfed to amplifier 164 such that this amplifier works in the invertingmode and the output to the recorder is a signal proportional to theamplitude of the sinusoidal current through the platinum and siliconelectrodes. The controlling amplifier 156 maintains a constant potentialbetween the platinum and silicon electrodes. In both modes, theintegrated circuit IC1 172 produces simultaneously 800 Hz sine waves andsquare waves. The square waves at pin 9 174 are fed to the transistor Q2158 to provide a reference signal to the phase sensitive detector. Sinewaves from pin 2 176 are fed to a variable phase shifter 180 whichincludes operational amplifier 182.

The phase shifted signal is capacitively coupled to the LED driver andLED 192 comprised of operational amplifier 184 and transistor Q1 186 andLED 188. This LED driver provides for varying the light output of theLED in a sinusoidal manner with an adjustable DC intensity value.

In certain cases it is desirable to monitor the DC component of thecurrent passing through the silicon electrode under conditions where thesilicon electrode is either dark or illuminated by a non-modulated lightsource. In this configuration, the circuit is operated in the CP modeand the output of operational amplifier A1 190 is filtered to remove theAC component of the signal and the resulting voltage is fed to arecorder. The voltage to the recorder is thus porportional to the DCcomponent of the current through the silicon electrode.

FIG. 3 shows a cross-section of an exemplary device having silicon wafer80 connected to a circuit by wire 82 and mounted in container 84.Container 84 has a plurality of compartments 86 in which different assaysamples are present. The compartment walls 88 would generally be ofabout 0.5 to 5 mm in thickness. As a reaction proceeds in each of thecompartments, particularly where the reaction occurs adjacent the wafersurface, a product is produced which diffuses to the wafer surface 90.For example, in the case of a redox reaction, the redox productsproduced in the compartment migrate to the surface 90 and affect thephotoresponse of the surface, either by reacting or creating a surfacepotential. In this manner, there is relatively little interferencebetween the signals obtained from the various sites on the wafer surface90 associated with an individual compartment 86. A transparent orsemitransparent window 93 is separated from the silicon surface 90 bymeans of the supports 94. A small gap 95 is present between the surface90 and the walls 88, so that the fluid can communicate between thecompartments and provide for electrical communication between thesilicon electrode 80 and platinum electrodes 97. The compartments 99will be unaffected by changes in compartments 86, so as to maintain thesolution composition substantially constant during the assay. An arrayof LEDs 92 provide for sequential illumination through compartments 86to an associated site on the surface 90. The signal is read inassociation with the period of illumination.

In FIG. 4 is a partially broken away diagrammatic view lookingdownwardly on a device employing a plurality of channels. A housing 100has a plurality of channels 102 having an inlet manifold 104 and anoutlet manifold 106. A single reference electrode 108 is provided aswell as a plurality of controlling counterelectrodes 110 deposited onthe inner surface of the window 111. A plurality of inlet ports 112associated with each of the channels is provided for introduction of thesample into a particular channel. The sample mixes with the assay mediumfrom manifold 104 and the mixture proceeds through a channel 102. Thebase of the channel is a photoresponsive electrode 114. An air bubblemay be introduced after the sample to separate the sample mixture fromthe following fluid. An LED array is provided, which is not shown, whichilluminates each of the channels along its length, so that one or moresites in each channel 102 can be irradiated. A photoresponsive electrode114 is in contact with the sample assay medium streams passing throughchannels 102 and filling the channels so as to be in contact with thecounterelectrodes 108 and 110.

In this mode, one could employ a homogeneous assay technique employingan enzyme which catalyzes the reaction resulting in a change in redoxpotential of the assay medium. The rate of the reaction in each channelcan be determined by taking sequential readings as a function of time atthe same or different points. The rate of reaction can be determined bymaking sequential readings as the assay medium traverses the channel atdifferent points along the channel. Thus, the rate of change ofenzymatic activity in each channel can be determined and related to theconcentration of analyte in the sample assay medium. The continuous flowof assay medium through the channel can serve to wash the channel andrestore the channel for the next determination. Alternatively, byemploying various valves one can alternate medium with wash solution, soas to restore the channel to its original state.

FIG. 5 is a diagrammatic view of a photoresponsive surface having aplurality of sites which are insulated one from another, but connectedto a common bus and having independent compartments for the assaymedium. The device has a container 120 which is shown as having only oneline of photoresponsive semiconductors 122. The photoresponsivesemiconductors are in electrical contact with a common bus 124,connected to lead 126 for connection to an appropriate circuit. Aplurality of tubes 130 connected to inlets 132 provide for introductionof solutions into the compartments 134. Each of the compartments isseparated by dividers 136. The tubes 130 have three-way valves 140 sothat the wash solutions or other common solutions may be introduced orremoved by means of inlet port 142. By appropriate manipulation of thevalves 140, the same solution may be introduced or removed from each ofthe compartments simultaneously, assuring uniformity. Individual sampleinlets 144 are provided for each compartment, so that the samplesolution is directly introduced into a compartment 134 withoutcontamination from other samples. A common counterelectrode 146 isemployed and introduced at a plurality of sites to provide for anaverage value. These electrodes are connected to the circuit, not shown,to which the common bus is connected. An LED array 150 is providedhaving individual LEDs 152 which can be controlled to sequentiallyilluminate the compartments in accordance with a predetermined schedule,so that the observed signal can be related to a specific compartment.Each of the photoresponsive devices 122 is coated with a specificbinding layer indicated by the dark line 154. For the purposes of thefollowing example, the layer would be a saccharide layer for which aspecific lectin was available.

An assay could be carried out as follows: Using the manifold 156 thevalves 140 would be arranged so that a solution containing an enzyme,such as cholesterol esterase conjugated to lectin could besimultaneously introduced into each of the compartments through inlets132. After a sufficient time for incubation the solution would bewithdrawn through inlets 132 and each of the compartments washed with anappropriately buffered wash solution. Individual sample solutions wouldbe prepared containing an unknown sample or a standard, antibody to ananalyte, e.g., morphine, a morphine conjugate to a cholesterol esteraseinhibitor, cholesterol oxidase, horseradish peroxidase and methyleneblue, as an electron transfer agent. Also included would be acholesterol esterase substrate and the solution buffered to pH 6.7. Eachof the compartments would then be partially filled with the bufferedsolution, whereupon introduction of the sample through sample inlets 144and inlets 132 the compartments would overflow, so that there would beuniform electrical contact with the counter electrodes 146.

The hydrolysis of cholesterol ester results in production ofcholesterol, which is oxidized to produce H₂ O₂, which oxidizes themethylene blue in a reaction catalyzed by the horseradish peroxidase.The methylene blue would modulate the signal upon irradiation of themedium adjacent to the photoresponsive surface. The amount of enzymewhich is inhibited would be directly proportional to the amount ofanalyte in the sample, since enzyme inhibitor conjugate bound toantibody to analyte would be inactive in inhibiting the enzyme. Aftersufficient time for reaction to occur to obtain a detectable signal atthe concentration range of interest, the compartments would besequentially irradiated and the signals detected by means of thecircuit, not shown. After a sufficient time when one or more readingswould have been made, the assay determination would be terminated bywithdrawing the solutions from each of the compartments through inlets132 and inlet port 142 by turning valves 134 to connect each of theinlets 132 with the inlet port 142. After removal of the assay media andwashing the compartments, a concentrated saccharide solution would thenbe introduced into each of the compartments repetitively, until all ofthe enzyme had been removed from the surface. The compartments wouldthen be washed with a wash solution to remove all of the unboundsaccharide, followed by introduction of the enzyme-lectin conjugate torestore the compartment to its original state for performing an assay.

FIG. 8 indicates an additional embodiment using a modified microtiterplate 200. The plate 200 has a plurality of wells 202 with assay medium204 in each well 202. The plate 200 has a plurality of partitions 206and a boron p-doped silicon wafer 210 to which is bonded electrical leadfor connection to an appropriate circuit (not shown). An electrodecontainer 214 supports a semi-solid electrically conducting lead 216having a plurality of projections 220 which extend into the assay media204. The semi-solid is substantially transparent to light and may bemade by preparing a 1.5 to 3 weight percent agar saline solution in anappropriate mold which includes the container 214 and then removing aportion of the mold after the agar has hardened. Polymeric agents otherthan polysaccharides such as agar may be employed as thickening agents,such as polyvinyl acetate, particularly partially hydrolyzed,polyacrylates, or the like.

A plurality of light sources 222 are provided which are connected to acircuit (not shown) through lead 224, so that each of the light sourcesmay be individually controlled as to timing and the nature of thesignal, e.g., a constant continuous signal, pulsed signal, sinusoidalsignal, etc.

A salt bridge 226 provides for electrical communication with electrolytesolution 230 in which counterelectrode 232, e.g., platinum, is immersed.The silicon electrode 210 and the platinum electrode 232 are connectedthrough a circuit (not shown).

The following experiments were constructed to demonstrate the use of thedevice to monitor the presence of molecules capable of participating inredox reactions. Evidence is also presented showing that signals aremodified specifically by chemical species adjacent to the illuminatedsite of the silicon wafer and that the presence or absence of similarspecies at adjacent but non-illuminated sites have negligible effect.

Except where indicated otherwise, the experiments described in thefollowing paragraphs employed the CAM-controlled device together with asingle photoresponsive semiconductor electrode having two fluid-filled,open-ended channels adjacent to its surface. The semiconductor electrodeis a 2-inch diameter P111 7-14 ohm "Pen Prime" boron-doped silicon wafersoldered to a copper wire, with electrical contact effected by use of anindium-gallium mixture. To construct the channels, the wafer is fixed toan optically clear garnet wafer by means of three strips of tape havingadhesive on both sides and a thickness of 70μ. This dimension is thenthe depth of the channels, the other dimensions being 0.5 cm width and 3cm length. The exposed garnet surface is then covered by opticallyopaque black electrical tape, except at two 25 mm² sites. These twotransparent sites are each adjacent to one of the two channels and alsoto one of two LEDs. This configuration allows for site-specific (andchannel-specific) illumination of the opposing continuous silicon wafersurface. The semiconductor electrode is positioned in such a way thatthe two channels both dip a few millimeters into the same bath of 40-50ml 0.1M phosphate buffer, pH 6.7-6.8. The platinum electrode is eitherplaced in this same bath or in an adjacent bath containing 40-50 ml 0.1Mphosphate buffer to which is preferably added K₄ [Fe(CN)₆ ] at 0.2 mMand K₃ [Fe(CN)₆ ] at 0.3 mM (approximately). In this latter mode, thebath containing the platinum electrode is connected to that containingthe silicon electrode by means of a salt bridge of half-saturated KC1solution, solidified by 2% agar. The ionic redox couple facilitatesreversibility of the platinum electrode, a feature which may beimportant to reduce drift and increase electrical stability for someapplications.

In the mode described above, the applied potential is typically -600 mVto -1000 mV with the AC photoresponse fixed at a preselected value.

Construction of a multiplicity of channels or compartments adjacent tothe wafer facilitates comparison of one or more "experimental" sampleswith one or more "reference" samples. Using the two-channel siliconwafer/garnet wafer device, described previously, it is possible tomonitor both channels on an essentially continuous basis throughalternate illumination of the two sites described previously. Thephotoresponse as modified by the reference sample may be automaticallysubtracted from that modified by the experimental sample by sinusoidallyilluminating both channels continuously and 180° out of phase andrecording the amplitude of the alternating current using the circuitshown in FIG. 1, optionally with the reference and controllingelectrodes shorted together.

To demonstrate the use of the device for measuring the concentration ofoxidizing (electron accepting) molecules and monitoring redox reactions,the following experiments were performed. Reversibility of the platinumelectrode was facilitated as previously described and the siliconwafer/garnet wafer assembly (having two channels) was employed. A redoxsolution was prepared which was 0.033M Fe(CN)₆ ⁻⁴ /Fe(CN)₆ ⁻³, 0.1MNaCl, 0.014M phosphate. The redox solution was introduced into channelsof the device described above. A plot of mvolts applied potential versusthe log of the Fe⁺² /Fe⁺³ concentration ratio was plotted and gave astraight line with a slope of 49 mV/unit (FIG. 7). The responsegenerated at the illuminated site is modified by the redox solution inthe channel adjacent to that site, with negligible interference producedby the solution with a different Fe⁺² /Fe⁺³ value added to the parallelnon-illuminated channel.

In further experiments the substance methylene blue (MB) was used as anelectron-transfer agent communicating with the silicon wafer. Unlessstated otherwise, the MB was at 5 μg/ml and the diluent wasphosphate-buffered saline for these experiments. When MB at 5 μg/ml isintroduced into a channel of the silicon wafer/garnet wafer assembly atransient (˜30 sec) applied potential signal of about -90 mV isrecorded. If NADPH at 1 mg/ml has previously been mixed with the MBsolution and left for about 5 min (in a sealed container which includeslittle air), the recorded transient signal is about -8 mV. Use ofvarying concentrations of NADPH has shown that measurement of NADPHconcentration is possible by means of this technique.

It is also possible to measure the concentration of the enzyme,horseradish peroxidase (HRPO), by a similar technique. Using MB at 5μg/ml and H₂ O₂ at 0.15%, together with various concentrations of HRPO(0.005 to 50 μg/ml), applied potential signals which were maintained athigh values for several minutes were recorded. In a typical experiment,the maintained signal measured at 1 min after addition of the reagentsto the device was -80 mV and -470 mV, respectively, for HRPO at 0.005and 50 μg/ml (with intermediate applied potential values obtained forintermediate HRPO concentrations). In contrast, in the absence of HRPO,MB+H₂ O₂ produces a transient 30 sec signal characteristic of MB alonewhich decays to the baseline value by lmin after addition to the device.

If MB is added to milk, at a final concentration of 5 μg/ml, and themixture introduced into the device, an elevated MB-dependent appliedpotential signal is obtained. The amplitude of this signal issignificantly reduced by the presence of E. coli growing in the milk.This indicates that bacterial growth may be monitored by such a method.The milk had not changed pH, as monitored using a pH meter, indicatingthat the signal reduction was not caused by a pH change, but by chemicalreduction of MB.

It is also possible to use a similar technique to measure theconcentration of H₂ O₂. In an experiment designed to illustrate this, MBand HRPO were used together, each at 5 μg/ml. Addition of H₂ O₂ (atvarious concentrations) prior to introduction of the mixtures to thedevice, showed that the transient signal observed at 6 μM H₂ O₂ (-150mV) was about 50% greater than that observed in its absence (-90 mV). Inthe range 0-50 μM H₂ O₂, transient signals are obtained with amplitudeswhich are approximately linear with H₂ O₂ concentration.

A similar technique has been used to assay glucose. In this case,glucose (at various concentration) was introduced to the enzyme glucoseoxidase (GO) at 5 μg/ml and left at room temperature for 40 min. At thistime, MB and HRPO were added to give a final concentration of 5 μg/ml ofeach substance and the solutions were sequentially introduced into thedevice. With 1.55 μg/ml (˜8 μM) glucose the transient applied voltagesignal was about 50% greater than that observed in its absence.

As evidenced above, assays can be performed for the substrates of suchenzymes as cholesterol oxidase, galactose oxidase, uricase, xanthineoxidase, etc., to a level of better than 10 μM, or the enzymesthemselves may be the species assayed. While the enzymes indicated aboveare associated with H₂ O₂ formation, other enzymes not involving theformation of H₂ O₂ will also be assayable.

At applied potential values (from silicon to platinum) of more than 0.3V, introduction of MB (in its oxidized form) results in a net flow ofelectrons from the silicon wafer to the MB, both when the wafer isilluminated and when it is not. At applied potential values (fromsilicon to platinum) of less than 0.3 V, net electron flow is onlydetected upon illumination of the wafer at a site adjacent to fluidcontaining MB. Therefore, when the circuitry is employed in the CP mode,at applied potential values (silicon to platinum) of less than 0.3 V,measurement of direct current, illumination of the wafer at differentsites, permits site-specific determination of oxidized MB concentration.MB which has previously been chemically reduced by substances such asNADPH or NADH is no longer reducible by electrons from the siliconwafer. Direct current measured upon illumination of the wafer has beenshown to be proportional to oxidized MB concentration for the range 0 to125 μM, as shown in Table 1.

                  TABLE 1                                                         ______________________________________                                        Concentration MB (μM)                                                                       Direct Current (nA)                                          ______________________________________                                         0                0                                                           25               168                                                          50               330                                                          75               480                                                          100              630                                                          125              780                                                          ______________________________________                                    

When using appropriate circuitry for any of the cited applications, thephotosignal from the redox pair is channel specific. Different redoxcompositions in different channels can be determined on a singlemonolithic surface, essentially simultaneously. It is also possible tomeasure one property in one channel, e.g., redox, and a differentproperty in a different channel, e.g., pH.

It is evident from the above results, that the subject devices andmethods provide for an accurate, rapid and efficient method formeasuring a wide variety of materials in a redox medium capable ofmodulating an electrical photoresponse. The subject device can beadapted to be used with liquids, gels and solid materials. The devicecan be used for measuring a large number of samples substantiallysimultaneously, employing rapid readouts, allowing for redundancy, so asto ensure accurate results, and providing for concomitantstandardization of determinations. The method can be used with a static(non-flowing) medium or a dynamic (flowing) medium. In addition, themethod can be used for the determination of rates. Various types ofseparation techniques can be monitored or analyzed, such aselectrophoresis, Southern blots, plaque formation, or the like, wherespecific sites can be defined in accordance with variations in signalsand position on a surface.

Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail byway of illustration and example for purposes of clarity ofunderstanding, it will be obvious that certain changes and modificationsmay be practiced within the scope of the appended claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A photoresponsive device for making at differentsites a plurality of determinations of a redox substance capable ofmodifying an electrical signal resulting from irradiation of aphotoresponsive element, said device comprising:a photoresponsiveelement having an irradiation receiving surface; irradiation means forirradiating at least two sites on said surface to providedistinguishable signals; a counterelectrode; means for polarizing saidelement with respect to said counterelectrode; first container means forretaining media in which said substance is to be determined in aphotoresponsive modifying relationship to at least two sites; secondcontainer means for maintaining a first electrolyte in electricalcommunication with said photoresponsive element; third container meansfor maintaining a second electrolyte in electrical communication withsaid counterelectrode; means for providing electrical communicationbetween electrolyte in said second and third container means withoutmixing of said first and second electrolytes; and means for measuringthe electrical photoresponse during irradiation of a site.
 2. A deviceaccording to claim 1, wherein said photoresponsive element is amonolithic doped silicon semiconductor wafer.
 3. A device according toclaim 1, including a clear sheet in close spaced apart paralleljuxtaposition to said irradiation receiving surface.
 4. A deviceaccording to claim 1, wherein said irradiation means is an LED arrayprogrammed to provide light pulses.
 5. A device according to claim 1,wherein said container means is a plurality of channels, each of saidchannels associated with an irradiation site.
 6. A device according toclaim 1, wherein said container means is a plurality of compartments,each of said compartments associated with an irradiation site.
 7. Adevice according to claim 1, wherein a portion of said element is coatedwith a lipid bilamellar layer for contact with said media.
 8. A deviceaccording to claim 7, wherein said lipid bilamellar layer is coated onsaid irradiation receiving surface and has a specific binding pairmember bound to said layer.
 9. A method for substantially simultaneouslydetermining a redox substance in a plurality of volumes of anelectrically responsive medium, employing a photoresponsive elementhaving a common lead through an electrical circuit to acounterelectrode, wherein said substance is capable of modulating thephotoresponse of said element;said method comprising: directing saidmedium into photoresponsive modifying relationship with aphotoresponsive surface of said element; maintaining electricalcommunication between said element and said counterelectrode through anelectrically responsive fluid or gel; irradiating said surface at aplurality of sites in relation to individual volumes at different timesin a predetermined sequence for defined periods of time at each of saidsites; and determining by means of said circuit the presence of saidsubstance in each of said volumes by the effect of said substance on thephotoresponse resulting from said irradiation.
 10. A method according toclaim 9, wherein said circuit includes means for polarizing said elementin relation to said counterelectrode and means for measuring the currentnecessary to restore the level of polarization during irradiation ofsaid surface.
 11. A method according to claim 9, wherein said circuitincludes means for varying the light intensity in relation to saidphotoresponse.
 12. A method according to claim 9, wherein said circuitincludes means for fixing the potential between said photoresponsiveelement and counterelectrode and for fixing the intensity of saidirradiation and determining the DC component of the photoresponse.
 13. Amethod according to claim 9, wherein said substance is an inorganic ion.14. A method according to claim 9, wherein said photoresponsive elementis a monolithic doped semiconductor.
 15. A method according to claim 9,wherein said volumes are portions of at least one stream.
 16. A methodaccording to claim 9, wherein each of said volumes is physicallyseparated from the other volumes.
 17. A method according to claim 9,wherein said substance is methylene blue, Meldola blue, or phenazinemethosulfate.
 18. A method according to claim 9, wherein said circuitmaintains said element and counterelectrode at a predetermined potentialdifference and measures the current necessary to restore the potentialdifference upon irradiation of said surface.
 19. A method according toclaim 9, wherein said substance is a result of an enzymatic reaction.20. A method according to claim 19, wherein said substance is reduced oroxidized indirectly through one or more intermediate compounds by theproduct of said enzyme.
 21. A method according to claim 19, wherein saidenzyme is an oxidoreductase.
 22. A method according to claim 21, whereinsaid oxidoreductase is a peroxidase.
 23. A method according to claim 21,wherein said enzyme is a dehydrogenase.
 24. A method for determining thepresence of an analyte in a sample, which analyte is a member of a firstspecific binding pair consisting of ligand and receptor, said methodemploying:(a) a photoresponsive electrode having an irradiation surface;(b) a counterelectrode; (c) an electrical circuit connecting saidphotoresponsive electrodes and counterelectrode and maintaining saidelectrodes in a predetermined potential relationship; (d) a bindingsurface for binding a member of a specific binding pair, which surfaceis said irradiation surface or a facing surface in close spaced apartjuxtaposition to said irradiation surface; and (e) specific bindingmeans for specifically binding one of said members of said firstspecific binding pair to said binding surface; said method comprising:in an aqueous assay medium, combining components with said specificbinding means, said assay components including a sample, a labeledspecific binding pair member, which labeled specific binding pair memberis a member of said first pair or capable of binding to, either directlyor indirectly, a member of said first pair, wherein said label is amember of a system capable of modulating the electrical photoresponse ofsaid photoresponsive electrode by means of a change in redox potential,and any additional members of said system; irradiating a plurality ofsites on said irradiation surface in relation to individual volumes ofsaid combined components at different times in accordance with apredetermined schedule; and determining the electrical photoresponse asmodulated by said system by means of said circuit as indicative of thepresence of said analyte in said sample.
 25. A method according to claim24, wherein said photoresponsive semiconductor is a doped monolithicsilicon wafer.
 26. A method according to claim 24, wherein said label isan enzyme.
 27. A method according to claim 24, wherein said specificbinding means is a second ligand and receptor.
 28. A method according toclaim 27, wherein said second ligand and receptor are a saccharide and alectin.
 29. A method according to claim 27, wherein said second ligandand receptor are a ligand and a natural receptor or antibody.
 30. Amethod for determining the presence of an enzyme substrate in a medium,wherein the product of said substrate results in the production of aproduct, capable of producing either directly or indirectly a detectableredox potential, said method employing:(a) a photoresponsivesemiconductor electrode having an irradiation surface; (b) at least onecounterelectrode; (c) an electrical circuit connecting saidphotoresponsive electrode and counterelectrode and maintaining saidelectrodes in a predetermined potential relationship; (d) a bindingsurface for binding said enzyme at a plurality of sites; said methodcomprising: contacting said enzyme at each of said sites with an aqueousmedium containing said substrate and any additional components necessaryfor the enzymatic catalyzed reaction; irradiating said sites on saidirradiation surface at different times in accordance with apredetermined schedule; and determining the electrical photoresponse asmodified by said system by means of said circuit as a measure of theamount of said substrate present.
 31. A method according to claim 30,wherein said enzyme is horseradish peroxidase.
 32. A method according toclaim 30, wherein said enzyme is glucose oxidase.
 33. A method fordetermining the presence of one or more microorganisms in a medium, saidmethod employing:(a) a photoresponsive electrode having an irradiationsurface having a plurality of sites; (b) at least one counterelectrode;(c) an electrical circuit connecting said photoresponsive electrode andcounterelectrode and maintaining said electrodes in a predeterminedpotential relationship; said method comprising: contacting said mediumat each of said sites under conditions where said microorganism remainsviable and produces at least one metabolic product capable of modulatingthe photoresponsive of said photoresponsive electrode by means of achange in the detectable redox potential of said medium; irradiatingsaid sites on said irradiation surface at different times in accordancewith a predetermined schedule; and determining the electricalphotoresponse as modified by said metabolic product by means of saidcircuit as an indication of the presence of a microorganism.
 34. Amethod according to claim 33, wherein said microorganism is bound by aspecific receptor in juxtaposition to said site.
 35. A method fordetecting the presence of an analyte in a medium, said methodemploying:(a) a photoresponsive electrode having an irradiation surfacehaving a plurality of sites; (b) at least one counterelectrode; (c) anelectrical circuit connecting said photoresponsive electrode andcounterelectrode and maintaining said electrodes in a predeterminedpotential relationship; said method comprising: contacting said mediumat each of said sites, wherein said medium contains horseradishperoxidase, hydrogen peroxide and methylene blue, and the amount ofhorseradish peroxidase in said medium is related to the amount ofanalyte in said medium, said horseradish peroxidase catalyzing theoxidation of methylene blue; irradiating said sites on said irradiationsurface at different times in accordance with a predetermined schedule;and determining the electrical photoresponse as a result of the reactionof the methylene blue at each of said sites.